Metaphysics

The orthodox view of Plato’s philosophy is that the whole scheme rests on a reasonably clear distinction between two kinds of reality – the intelligible and the sensible. This is an adequate starting point, but it will require important modifications if we are to grasp the full extent of his metaphysics, which is more subtle than such an over-simplification allows: indeed we miss an all-important principle if we do not press further towards its half-hidden unity. But let us start with the twofold reality.

There are many places where Plato explores a two-state universe, and describes the characteristics of each order. In the Timaeus (at 27d) for example, when Timaeus himself introduces his teachings concerning the cosmos, he says “In the first place, therefore, as it appears to me, it is necessary to define what that is which is always real being, but is without generation; and what that is which is generated indeed, or consists in a state of becoming to be, but which never really is. The former of these indeed is apprehended by intelligence in conjunction with reason, since it always subsists according to same. But the latter is perceived by opinion in conjunction with irrational sense; since it subsists in a state of generation and corruption, and never truly is.” ²

Psychology

This moves us on to a consideration of the psychology of Plato. What is the soul according to Plato and his tradition?

We need to go back to the simplest terms here: psyche in Greek means breath – the signal of life: our earthly life is traditionally measured from the first breath to our last. So for the Greek psyche is the life giver, the thing which makes otherwise inanimate matter live. It is even more obvious in the Latin, for anima is what animates matter. There are clearly three forms of earthly life – that of plants, that of irrational animals, and that of rational human life. According to Aristotle’s De Anima, each form of life must have a different form of soul, for as the old Platonists point out, we must judge an essence by its energies, or the nature of a thing by its activities.

For a life to be rational, there must be a soul which is rational, for it is impossible for an essence to be less than its energies – for we can no more get rational energies from an irrational essence than we could pour a litre of water from a half-litre jug. Thus it is that in the First Alcibiades when Alcibiades and Socrates are looking to come to a simple understanding of what is happening as they converse, Socrates says (at 130e), “This therefore was our meaning when we said a little before, that Socrates discoursed with Alcibiades, making use of reason: we meant, it seems, that he directed his words and arguments, not to your outward person, but to Alcibiades himself, that is to the soul.”

Ethics

We now turn to a survey of what one might call ethics in its widest sense: Of course the direction of Plato’s ethical system is based on his view of the nature of the human self and its destiny: if we are, as he thinks, immortal and intellectual creatures unfolding our potential in the world of time, then the pursuit of material wealth and temporal security is of little value. The whole of society and all aspects of human intercourse should be directed towards the goal of spiritual (or as the Platonic tradition calls it, intellectual) growth – or the full consciousness of our own immortal and intellectual nature.

So even though enlightenment is of the philosophic individual, at no point does Plato advocate the removal of responsibility of those who are enlightened or approaching that state to serve their fellow citizens. Quite the reverse: after the description of how the former prisoner of the Cave has contemplated the highest vision of the ruling sun, this is what Socrates says of his plans for his Republic (519c) “It is our business then, said I, to oblige those of the inhabitants who have the best geniuses, to apply to that learning which we formerly said was the greatest, both to view The Good, and to ascend that ascent; and when they have ascended, and sufficiently viewed it, we are not to allow them what is now allowed them.”

Summary

To summarize, the primary concepts of Platonism are:

1. That there is a single source of all things, which we call The One or The Good, ineffable and transcendentally above all qualities.
2. That from this source reality unfolds as a communication of goodness, descending in causal steps through the power of similarity.
3. The immediate offspring of The One are simple henads – unities or gods, providential agents who supply the whole universe of being with specific characteristics.
4. The first subsistence of these characteristics are real beings – eternal ideas or forms which act as stable paradigms for everything which comes into temporal existence.
   Read more...